Transcription of the DNA virus genome (except for poxviruses) occurs in the nucleus. Many DNA viruses establish persistent infections.

DNA viruses use the cellular RNA polymerase produce mRNA. Transcription of the viral genes is regulated by the interaction of specific DNA binding proteins with promoter and enhancer elements in the viral genome. The viral promoter and enhancer elements are similar in sequence to those of the host cell to allow binding of the cell’s transcriptional activation factors and DNA dependent RNA polymerase. Cells from different tissues or species express different DNA binding proteins, and this is a determinant for replication of the virus in that cell. In general, mRNA for nonstructural proteins are transcribed first. Early gene products (nonstructural proteins) are often DNA binding proteins and enzymes, including viral encoded polymerases. Genes may be transcribed form either DNA strand of the genome and in opposite directions. Viral genes may have introns requiring postranscriptional processing of the mRNA by the cell’s nuclear machinery (splicing). 

The genome of DNA viruses is replicated by either host or viral DNA polymerase typically in the nucleus. 

Single-Stranded DNA Viruses

Parvoviruses: belong to the family Parvoviridae and they are currently known to be some of the smallest viruses (18-24 nm in diameter).Parvoviruses have no envelope (non-enveloped) which makes them physically and chemically stable. They are thus resistant to heating, low pH, and treatment with a chemical agent, which are generally performed during an inactivation step of the production process for a biological preparation. 

Examples of parvoviruses include mouse parvovirus (MVM), procine parvovirus (PPV) and canine parvovirus (CPV). 

Parvovrial infections are responsible for significant clinical burden in many of the affected species. For instance, canine parvovirus and feline panluekopenia virus cause significant mortality in infected dogs. Tehre are a number of paroviruses that inect humans, including erythrovirus B19, adeno-associated viruses, and human bocaviruses 1-4 and human parvovirus PARV4. (Mattei, Virology, 442(1), 20-27 2013).

Until recently, the only parvovirus known to be pathogenic for humans is B19. In 2005, a new human virus of the genus Bocavirus considered to be pathogenic for humans, provisionally named human bocavirus (HBoV), was described in Sweden. Human bocavirus (HBoV), was found in 21 (8.3%) of 252 nasopharyngeal aspirates from hospitalized children with lower respiratory tract infection in Hunan Province, People’s Republic of China. See Qu

–Human parvovirus B19 (B19) is a seasonal respiratory virus that causes mild disease in most persons; severe outcomes can occur in persons who are pregnant, immunocompromised, or have chronic hemolytic disorders. Human parvovirus B19 (B19) is a seasonal virus primarily transmitted through the air.† B19 infection can be transmitted from a mother to the fetus during pregnancy and, rarely, through transfusion of blood components and certain plasma derivates. Most persons become infected with B19 during their school years. Immunity from infection is thought to be lifelong. The population prevalence of protective antibodies increases with age from 50% at age 20 years to approximately 70% by age 40 years. Because there is no routine surveillance for B19 in the United States, to determine whether B19 activity increased in 2024, the prevalences of immunoglobulin (Ig) M antibody against B19 in clinical specimens submitted to a commercial laboratory and detection of B19 through nucleic acid amplification testing (NAAT) from pooled donor source plasma should be examined.  See CDC

Double-stranded DNA Viruses

Examples of dsDNA viruses include herpesviruses, adenovirues, poxviruses and papovaviruses. 

Orthopoxviruses:   refers to a virus species or strain belonging to the genus orthopoxvirus. Kown viruses include Buffalopox, California vole pox, Camelpox, Cowpox, extromelia, monkeypox, rabbitpox, raccon pox, tatera pox, Uasin Gishu pox, vaccinia, variola, and vole pox virus. Othropoxviruses produces two types of infectious particles, namely the intracellular mature virions (IMV) and the extracellular enveloped virions (EEV). IMV plays a predominant role in host to host transmission and EEV plays a major role in virus propagation within the host. Studies have suggested that protection against virus challenge is increased when protein/DNA combinations targeting both IMV and EEV viron proteins are used for immunization/vaccination. 

Poxviruses are brick or oval-shaped viruses with large double-stranded DNA genomes. Poxviruses exist throughout the world and cause disease in humans and many other types of animals. Poxvirus infections typically result in the formation of lesions, skin nodules, or disseminated rash. See CDC

Jensen (WO2007/065433) discloses a composition of different antibody molecules which are capable of binding to several different speciv antigenic determinants on the same or on different antigens (Jensen called this a “polyclonal antibody”). The polyclonal antibody can be produced in one pot from a polyclonal cell line or it may be a mixture of different polyclonal antibodies. The procedure involves isolation of sequences coding for the VH and VL chains fro a suitable source such as lymphocyte containing cell fractions such as blood or spleen from an animal or huan immunized with an othropoxvirus strains. Next, the VH and VL protein chains are integrated into specific sites of the genome of individual host cells as by using a host cell with one or more recombinase recognition sequences. For a discussion of vector design and integration into the host genome see “biotechnolgy and victors”. 

–Monkey Pox Virus:

Monkeypox, a zoonotic infection caused by an orthopoxvirus, is endemic in parts of Africa. On August 4, 2022, the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services declared the U.S. monkeypox outbreak, which began on May 17, to be a public health emergency. The most frequently reported signs and symptoms included rash (100%), fever (63%), chills (59%), and lymphadenopathy (59%). Rash was most frequently reported on the genitals (46%), arms (40%), face (38%), and legs (37%); among 718 persons with monkeypox who reported body regions with rash, 238 (33%) reported rash in one region, 126 (18%) in two regions, 98 (14%) in three regions, and 256 (36%) in four or more regions. Among 104 persons with information on the number of lesions, 88% of cases involved fewer than 50 lesions. Philpott 

Most people with monkeypox recover within a few weeks. However, the Congo Basin strain kills up to 10% of those infected, but the current outbreak appears to only involve the West African strain, which in past outbreaks had a fatality rate of about 1%. Monkeypox usually spreads through close contact and respiratory droplets, but in 2017 Nigerian researchers suggested sexual transmission might have occurred in several patients with genital ulcers. 

With more than 200,000 base pairs, the monkeypox genome is about seven times the size of SARS-CoV-2’s and more than 20 times larger than HIV’s. Because it’s a DNA virus, monkeypox has far better genetic repair mechanisms than RNA viruses such as HIV and SARS-CoV-2, which means it changes more slowly.

Two vaccines are licensed by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA). One, manufactured by Emergent BioSolutions, is similar to the smallpox vaccine used during the eradication campaign and can still cause severe disease and even death in people who have compromised immune systems. It only requires a single dose. The other, from Bavarian Nordic, uses a nonreplicating form of vaccinia, specifically designed to cause fewer side effects. It requires two doses given 4 weeks apart. A FDA has explicitly approved the Bavarian Nordic vaccine for both smallpox and monkeypox.  

–Smallpox: (see also agents of Bioterrorism)

Smallpox has been a scourge against humanity for at least the past 1500 years, and perhaps much longer than that. There is no mention of the disease in ancient Greek writings, but plagues of pustular disease in the Roman Empire bore a strong resemblance to smallpox. Smallpox is caused by the variola virus, a DNA virus of the genus Orthopoxvirus. Humans are the only known reservoir for this virus. It is transmitted from person to person, and natural infection occurs by inhalation of respiratory droplets or contact with infected material on mucous membranes. Historical data suggest that smallpox is not highly transmissible, and high population densities are required to sustain transmission. Persons who have close, prolonged contact with an infected patient are at highest risk. After a 10 to 14 day incubation period, the infected person develops severe symptoms with fever, malaise and headache. A maculopapular rash then develops with involvement of the face, mucous membranes, trunk and extremities. The lesions become pustular and deep over the subsequent 1 to 2 days, with scab formation by day 10. Patients are most infectious during the first week of the rash when viral shedding is greatest from ulcerated lesions in the oral mucosa. The overall mortality rate is about 30%, with most deaths occurring during the second week of illness. The earliest smallpox prevention efforts date back to at least the 10th century in China, when physicians found that nasal inoculation of susceptible persons with material from smallpox lesions would sometimes provide immunity. The more virulent form of smallpox, variola major, was widespread in the United States during the 19th century, but only two major outbreaks occurred from 1900 to 1925.9 In contrast, the milder form of smallpox (variola minor) was common until the 1930s. After 1949, there were no endemic cases of smallpox in the United States, but the disease continued to be a serious problem in less developed countries. By 1966, smallpox remained endemic in 33 countries. After extensive debate, the World Health Assembly approved $2.4 million to initiate a global eradication program over the next 10 years. Early in the campaign the Soviet Union and the United States donated more than 150 million doses of vaccine. Around the same time, the bifurcated needle was developed, which simplified delivery and reduced the volume of vaccine required. The global eradication effort, led by D.A. Henderson, originally used a strategy of mass vaccination campaigns to achieve 80% vaccine coverage in each country. This goal proved difficult to attain in many underdeveloped countries, but a serendipitous discovery led to a more effective strategy. Insufficient vaccine supplies in Nigeria led Dr. William Foege to try a strategy of aggressive case-finding, followed by vaccination of all known and possible contacts to seal off the outbreak from the rest of the population. This strategy, known as surveillance-containment or ring vaccination, led to the disappearance of smallpox in eastern Nigeria even though the population coverage was less than 50%. The relative benefits of ring vaccination versus mass vaccination have been debated, but epidemiological evidence from Africa and Asia suggests that both lower population density and higher population vaccine coverage contributed to the elimination of transmission in many regions. The last naturally-acquired case of the variola major was identified in Bangladesh in late 1975. The last case of illness caused by the less virulent strain (variola minor) occurred in Somalia in 1977. The World Health Assembly declared that smallpox had been eradicated from the earth in 1980. Although the significance of this event may be under appreciated, it stands as one of the greatest accomplishments of the 20th century, if not one of the greatest human accomplishments of all time. Several factors unique to smallpox contributed to the success of this effort, including easily-diagnosed clinical disease, lack of subclinical infections, absence of transmission during prodrome, and lack of an animal reservoir. In 1976, the World Health Organization requested that all laboratories with smallpox virus either destroy the virus or submit their stocks to one of two collaborating centers in the United States (Centers for Disease Control) or the Soviet Union (Moscow Institute). Most laboratories complied, but there is evidence that smallpox was subsequently developed as a biological weapon in the Soviet Union. Large volumes of weaponized smallpox virus may be unaccounted for, and there is concern that smallpox stocks may have been acquired by other nations. There have also been allegations that Russia has developed recombinant strains of smallpox with increased virulence and infectivity. These concerns have contributed to the current interest in renewed smallpox vaccinations, particularly since the September 11, 2001 terrorist attack and the use of anthrax as a biological weapon later in 2001. The most widely used virus for smallpox inoculation has been vaccinia, which belongs to the genus Orthopoxvirus along with variola virus. Other species of Orthopoxvirus include cowpox (the virus used by Jenner), monkeypox, and camelpox, among others. Vaccinia is a double-stranded DNA virus with a wide host range. Its origin is uncertain, and there are many strains of vaccinia with different biological properties. Vaccinia induces both cellular and humoral immunity to variola virus. The current U.S. licensed smallpox vaccine (Dryvax, Wyeth Laboratories, Inc.) was prepared from calf lymph using the New York City Board of Health (NYCBOH) strain of vaccinia. Production of this vaccine was discontinued in 1982. The National Pharmaceutical Stockpile also includes the Aventis Pasteur vaccine, which was also manufactured from calf lymph. Multiple other strains of vaccinia have been used in other regions the world. Long-term research is underway using recombinant DNA technology to develop a safer vaccine that will provide an effective immune response without replication of vaccinia virus. In the 1960s, serious adverse events associated with smallpox vaccination in the United States included death (1/million vaccinations), progressive vaccinia (1.5/million vaccinations), eczema vaccinatum (39/million vaccinations), postvaccinial encephalitis (12/million vaccinations), and generalized vaccinia (241/million vaccinations). Persons with atopic dermatitis or eczema, irrespective of disease severity or activity, are at risk of developing eczema vaccinatum and should not receive pre-exposure smallpox vaccination. See Smallpox Vaccine: The Good, the Bad, and the UglySmallpox Vaccine: The Good, the Bad, and the Ugly

Polyomavirus: are small, non-enveloped, double-stranded DNA viruses. Their genome possesses early and late genes. They are potentially oncogenic such as with merkel cell polyomavirus which is known to cause the majority of cases of Merkel cell carcinoma, a rare but aggressive form of skin cancer.  

Single Stranded Linear DNA viruses:

Though ssDNA viruses form a diverse pool of pathogenic entities, pathogenicity towards humans is comparatively rare. These viruses constitute a very small family in the viral world probably due to their receptor specific tropism, small genomic structure, and for the molecular mechanisms inside the host used for viral replication. See Chouduri 

Hepatitis B virus (HBV) infects more than 300 million people worldwide and is a common cause of liver disease and liver cancer. HBV, a member of the Hepadnaviridae family, is a small DNA virus with unusual features similar to retroviruses. HBV replicates through an RNA intermediate and can integrate into the host genome. The unique features of the HBV replication cycle confer a distinct ability of the virus to persist in infected cells. See Liang

After infection of a hepatocyte, viral genome is transported to the nucleus and then converted to a covalently closed, circular dsDNA, called cccDNA.  After entry of the viral genome into the nucleus, the single-stranded gap region in the viral genome is repaired by the viral pol protein, and the viral DNA is circularized to the covalently closed circular (cccDNA) form.All transcription is completed on the negative strand DNA. The P protein attached to the minus strand and the RNA oligonucleotides at the 5′ end of the plus strand are removed.  Gaps are filled and the ends of the DNA strands are closed. Host repair enzymes are believed to carry out these processes. The resulting cccDNA does not integrate into the host genome nor does it replicate as an episome.   Only one strand (negative strand) of the cccDNA is transcribed by cellular RNA polymerase II. Several mRNAs are produced. 4 different promoters lead to 4 unspliced transcripts of 3.5kb, 2.4, 2.1, and 0.7kb  in length. The 3.5 kb mRNA is slightly larger than the genome, due to repeat sequences.  All mRNAs end at the same poly(A) site. See Standford

RNA transcripts are capped and polyadenylated. 

Transcription of viral DNA is most efficient in hepatocytes because some of the promoters require transcription factors such as hepatocyte nuclear factor 1, for optimal function. In addition, there are two known enhancers that work best in hepatocytes.  

Parvoviridae: are small, resilient, non-enveloped viruses with linear, single-stranded DNA genomes of 4–6 kb (Table 1.Parvoviridae). Viruses in two subfamilies, the Parvovirinae and Densovirinae, are distinguished primarily by their respective ability to infect vertebrates (including humans) versus invertebrates. Being genetically limited, most parvoviruses require actively dividing host cells and are host and/or tissue specific. Some cause diseases, which range from sub-clinical to lethal. A few require co-infection with helper viruses from other families. See Virus Taxonomy

 Parvoviruses are non-enveloped, icosahedral particles 18 to 26 nm in diameter. Plus and minus DNA strands are packaged into separate virions in approximately equal proportion. There are two capsid proteins. Replication takes place in the nucleus of dividing cells. The single-stranded DNA genome forms an intermediate double-stranded form, which replicates to form progeny-positive and -negative single-stranded DNA. Positive and negative strands are packaged separately in viral capsids in equal numbers. See Patou

—-Parvovirus B19 (B19V) is a small, non-enveloped virus that has a diameter of approximately 23–26 nm and contains a linear single-stranded DNA genome of 5.6 kb, flanked by two identical terminal hairpin structures . The name B19 was coined after the sample number containing the virus; panel B and no.19, during the screening of hepatitis B virus. Upon entry of the virus into the nucleus, The B19V ssDNA genome is converted to double-stranded replicative form (dsRF), which acts a template for both DNA replication and transcription. See Qiu

Parvovirus B19 is a virus that only infects humans. It is known to cause Fifth Disease, also known as erythema infectiosum or slapped cheek syndrome, which occurs mostly in young children but can occur in adults. It can also cause an aplastic crisis in those with certain anemias, hydrops fetalis in pregnant women, polyarthropathy, and papular-purpuric gloves and socks syndrome (PPGSS) in young adults. Transmission of the virus occurs through respiratory secretions and blood products. Parvovirus B19 infection occurs worldwide and is most common in school-aged children. The prevalence of parvovirus B19 in developed countries in children younger than five years is 2% to 10%, 40% to 60% in adults older than 20 years, and 85% or more in people 70 years and older. Infections with parvovirus B19 tend to occur more often in the late winter, spring, and early summer.  Mini-outbreaks of parvovirus B19 infection occur about every three to four years. Parvovirus B19 is a non-enveloped virus that binds to host cell receptors in the respiratory tract and enters the cell. It then translocates its genome to the host nucleus whereby DNA replication, RNA transcription, and assembly of the virus occurs.  See Crane.   See Merk Manual. 

Parvovirus is usually self-limiting, which means it will disappear on its own. For children and adults who generally are in good health, no medical treatment is necessary. Self-care includes drinking plenty of fluids and getting enough rest. Analgesics such as acetaminophen may help relieve symptoms such as headache and fever. Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs may help relieve joint swelling and pain. However, parvovirus B19 infections can result in serious complications for people with weakened immune systems or chronic anemia. See Cleveland Clinic

Double-Stranded Linear DNA 

Variola virus: causes smallpox.  See also bioterrism

Smallpox is blamed for an estimated 300 million deaths in the 20th century alone, and outbreaks have occurred almost continuously for thousands of years. The disease was eradicated by a worldwide vaccination campaign, and the last case of smallpox in the United States was in 1949, according to the CDC. The last naturally occurring case in the world was in Somalia in 1977. With the exception of stores of the virus held in high-containment facilities in the United States and Russia, smallpox no longer exists on the planet. Since it was no longer necessary for prevention, and because the vaccines themselves were risky, routine vaccination against smallpox was stopped. However, public health concerns regarding the possible re-emergence of the virus through bioterrorism have led to renewed interest in the development of treatments for the disease and safer vaccines.  

This virus is a DNA virus, but replicates in the cytoplasm instead of the nucleus like other DNA viruses. The reproduction of the Variola virus begins when the virus attaches to the membrane receptors on the outside of the cell. It then enters the cell through a currently unknown process. As it enters the cell it loses its membrane coat. Inside the cell, the virus’s proteins, , enzymes, and DNA are released into the cytoplasm of the cell. There, the viral replication and assembly happens. 

Herpesviridae: is a large family of DNA viruses that cause diseases in animals, including humans. The structure of herpes viruses consists of a relatively large double-stranded, linear DNA genome encased within an icosahedral protein cage called the capsid, which is wrapped in a lipid bilayer called the envelope. Notable herpes viruses include herpes simplex viruses 1 and 2, Varicella zoster virus (the causative agent of shingles and chicken pox), cytomegalovirus, and Kaposi’s sarcoma virus. There is no method to eradicate herpes virus from the body, but antiviral medications, such as acyclovir, can reduce the frequency, duration, and severity of outbreaks. See Biology LibreTexts.  See VIPR. 

Herpesviruses present difficult challenges in vaccine development because of their ability to evade immune clearance, although work is active to developing vaccines to prevent herpes simplex virus (HSV), cytomegalovirus (CMV), and Epstein-Barr virus (EBV)-associated illnesses. See Straus

–Herpes simplex II: causes genital herpes.  Herpes simplex viruses type 1 and type 2 (HSV-1 and HSV-2) are highly prevalent pathogens transmitted by direct contact, including sexual and mouth-to-genital transmission, which cause both lytic infection of epithelial cells and latent infection in sensory ganglia, which reactivate periodically. Recurrent productive infections are responsible for several painful clinical illnesses, including cold sores, keratitis, blepharitis, meningitis, encephalitis, genital infections, and overt disease and severe sequelae in neonatal and immune-compromised patients. Such recurrences are usually localized but can be generalized when the host is immune-compromised. In addition, roughly 1% of all HSV infected persons experience subclinical reactivation on any given day, allowing unknown spreading of virus infection. Herpes outbreaks make people more susceptible to other sexually transmitted infections and have facilitated a large proportion of HIV acquisition globally. Moreover, repeated reactivation of latent HSV-1 in the brain is considered a major risk for AD pathogenesis. See MDPI

If a person has HSV-1, a bad sunburn can trigger a herpes simplex outbreak. See American Association of Dermotology

Herpes simplex virus (HSV) is a member of the Alphaherpesvirinae subfamily of the Herpesviridae family. HSV is a double-stranded DNA virus that infects a variety of host tissues and is characterized by a lytic and latent cycle. As the first human herpesvirus to be discovered, HSV is one of the most extensively studied viruses. See knipe

Three vaccines that prevent infection with disease-causing HPV types are licensed for use in the United States: Gardasil®, Gardasil®9 and Cervaris®. All three vaccines prevent infection with HPV types 16 and 18, two high risk HPVs that that cause about 70% of cervical cancers and an even higher percentage of some of the other HPV-caused cancers. See National Cancer Institute

–Varicella-zoster virus (VZV) is a ubiquitous human alphaherpesvirus that causes varicella (chicken pox) and herpes zoster (shingles). Varicella is a common childhood illness, characterized by fever, viremia, and scattered vesicular lesions of the skin. As is characteristic of the alphaherpesviruses, VZV establishes latency in cells of the dorsal root ganglia. Herpes zoster, caused by VZV reactivation, is a localized, painful, vesicular rash involving one or adjacent dermatomes. The incidence of herpes zoster increases with age or immunosuppression. The VZV virion consists of a nucleocapsid surrounding a core that contains the linear, double-stranded DNA genome. See Arvin

–—Chickenpox is a highly contagious disease caused by the varicella-zoster virus (VZV). It causes an itchy, blister-like rash. The rash appears first on the chest, back, and face, and then spreads over the entire body. Chickenpox used to be very common in the United States. In the early 1990s, an average of 4 million people got chickenpox, 10,500 to 13,000 were hospitalized, and 100 to 150 died each year. Chickenpox vaccine became available in the United States in 1995. Each year, more than 3.5 million cases of chickenpox, 9,000 hospitalizations, and 100 deaths are prevented by chickenpox vaccination in the United States. CDC recommends two doses of chickenpox vaccine for children, adolescents, and adults who have never had chickenpox and were never vaccinated. Children are routinely recommended to receive the first dose at age 12 through 15 months and the second dose at age 4 through 6 years. See CDC

Shingles vaccination is the only way to protect against shingles and postherpetic neuralgia (PHN), the most common complication from shingles. CDC recommends that healthy adults 50 years and older get two doses of the shingles vaccine called Shingrix (recombinant zoster vaccine), separated by 2 to 6 months, to prevent shingles and the complications from the disease. Your doctor or pharmacist can give you Shingrix as a shot in your upper arm. See CDC

Shingrix provides strong protection against shingles and PHN. Two doses of Shingrix is more than 90% effective at preventing shingles and PHN. Protection stays above 85% for at least the first four years after you get vaccinated.

 Circular Single Stranded DNA 

Double Stranded Circular DNA 

Papillomaviruses (PVs) 

Papillomaviruses are small, non-enveloped, epitheliotropic, double-stranded DNA viruses that infect mucosal and cutaneous epithelia in a wide variety of higher vertebrates in a species-specific manner and induce cellular proliferation. Only bovine papillomaviruses (BPVs) 1 and 2 are known to infect mesenchymal tissues and to show cross-species transmission. More than 100 types of human papillomaviruses (HPVs) have been identified and approximately half of them infect the genital tract. Many types of HPV have been found in cervical cancers, while others are found rarely or not at all in large series of cancers, which gives rise to the nomenclature of ‘high-’ and ‘low-risk’ HPVs. These other types are associated with other anogenital and oropharyngeal cancers. A number of HPVs have been found to be present in skin cancers in patients who have epidermodysplasia verruciformis (EV); these types are also found in both non-melanoma skin cancers and normal skin. The potential associations of HPVs with these and other cancers are discussed in other sections. See Human Papillomivirus

PVs are a numerous family of small dsDNA viruses infecting virtually all mammals. PVs cause infections without triggering a strong immune response, and natural infection provides only limited protection against reinfection. Most PVs are part and parcel of the skin microbiota. In some cases, infections by certain PVs take diverse clinical presentations from highly productive self-limited warts to invasive cancers. See Oxford Academic

Papovaviruses are spherical particles with capsids made up of 72 morphological units (capsomeres). All papovaviruses are non-enveloped and multiply in the nucleus of the infected cell. They carry a double-stranded, circular DNA genome that associates with host-encoded histones in the virions. However, papillomaviruses (e.g. bovine, cottontail rabbit, and human papillomaviruses) and polyomaviruses (e.g. murine polyomavirus and simian virus 40) differ in diameter, genome size, protein composition and size, and capsomere morphology and size. See Baker

The human papillomavirus (HPV) is a non-enveloped, double-stranded, circular DNA virus that is responsible for causing multiple epithelial lesions and cancers. It can manifest as cutaneous and anogenital warts, which depending on the subtype, may progress to carcinoma. This activity reviews the evaluation and management of human papillomavirus infection and explains the role of the interprofessional team in improving care for patients with this condition. See Luria

polyoma viruses:

double-stranded DNA with covalently linked proteins at the end of the DNA strands

–adenovirus)

–-poxvirus: are double-stranded DNA with each end covalently sealed